Article CAS Google Scholar Di Chiara G
Gender and diversity In addition, relatively few studies of women smokers have explored the ways in which gender intersects with other dimensions of diversity including age, disadvantage, religion, SES, occupation and race/ethnicity to create conditions and complexities that increase the risk of tobacco use and/or SHS exposure.44 45 Some research in HICs has used quantitative and qualitative methods to undertake nuanced and sophisticated analyses which explore tobacco use and exposure in the context of the diversity of girls' and women's lives, circumstances and experiences.44 4648 These approaches have shown how women's risks of becoming and remaining smokers relate to gendered and disadvantaged life trajectories and biographies that often include early pregnancy, lone motherhood, deprivation and violence.44 49 In addition, women with the least success in quitting often live in environments where smoking is normative and there is little support for quitting.47 Smoking initiation studies have found that the meanings that young people attach to smoking are gendered and smoking may act as a marker of gender and identity.5052 Gender differences have been found in HICs with regard to the perceived value of smoking in relation to, among other factors, affect control, creating and maintaining social relationships, body image, weight control, enhancing social identity and status (social capital), and as self-medication.44 4648 53 54 Some studies have also found that women have greater difficulty quitting compared to men.55 Although the mechanisms are not well understood, they are probably related to biological and psychosocial aspects of addiction and dependence.56 57 Several studies have found that nicotine replacement therapy is less effective in women than men.5860 Non-nicotine cues to smoke appear to be more important for women than for men, and smoking has a perceived functional value in the lives of low-income single mothers, who use smoking to cope and provide care in disadvantaged circumstances, making cessation more difficult.48 61 A narrow focus on HICs Most studies have been carried out in HICs where the patterns and trajectories of girls' and women's tobacco use and SHS exposure differ from those in LMICs
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It releases a steady dose of nicotine to help reduce the urge to smoke
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