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Abbreviations ASCA anti- Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibody FGID functional gastrointestinal disorders GF germ-free IEB intestinal epithelial barrier IBD inflammatory bowel disease IBS irritable bowel syndrome IBS-C constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome IBS-D diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome IBS-M irritable bowel syndrome with mixed bowel habit LPS lipopolysaccharides SCFA short-chain fatty acids

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GLP-1R expressed in the nucleus tractus solitarius signals to suppress appetite, delay gastric emptying and reduce body weight, and this is proposed to be mediated through PKA, decreasing phosphorylation of AMPK (110)

Furthermore, gluten acts as a pro-oxidative agent, resulting in elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS)